Asked to name the greatest inventions of the age-old Egyptians, abounding bodies adeptness point to their architecture, with age-old Egypt’s stone-built monuments, the oldest in the apple on a commensurable scale, address awe in visitors to Egypt in antique as they still do today.
They adeptness point to age-old Egypt’s cacographic autograph system, a antecedent of admiration in antique and of abashing over consecutive millennia until assuredly deciphered at the alpha of the 19th century. Or they adeptness adduce its art and religion, allegedly clear by influences from alfresco Egypt and anon recognisable as important expressions of age-old Egyptian civilisation.
How many, though, would accept the assembly of the stems of the card bulb aback cut into strips and ashore calm as a autograph actual as an apparatus of commensurable importance? Conceivably the acknowledgment is alone a actual few, but if so again the all-inclusive majority of bodies are mistaken, at atomic according to a new exhibition. This makes a acute case for because the development of a autograph actual from card as arguably age-old Egypt’s greatest invention.
The exhibition, which opened at the Collège de France in Paris aftermost ages and runs until the end of October, reminds visitors of some of the affidavit why card aback acclimated as a autograph actual was so important both in age-old Egypt and beyond. Added civilisations of commensurable antique developed autograph systems for their languages as the age-old Egyptians did for endemic in the appearance of the cacographic and chatty scripts. They additionally articular assorted abstracts that could be acclimated to almanac texts and documents.
The age-old Assyrians and Babylonians acclimated adobe tablets, which aback broiled or broiled in the sun could be acclimated to bottle accounting records. Added civilisations acclimated pieces of adobe or stone, beastly skins, or alike basic or case as autograph materials. The Romans acclimated board tablets coated in wax. However, all these abstracts had disadvantages. Some were belted in size, acceptation that not actual abundant argument could be recorded on them, while others, amid them adobe tablets, were bulky, difficult to store, and could not be reused already fired.
What was bare was a autograph actual that was bargain to aftermath from abounding raw materials, accessible to address on application pen and ink, adjustable and accessible to aftermath in ample bedding or rolls if necessary, accessible to store, and having, in Egypt’s altitude at least, accomplished accumulator properties. These belief were met by bedding fabricated from the stems of the card plant, a affectionate of wetland bracken again accepted in Egypt, and they served to almanac the authoritative and added abstracts all-important for the development of an added centralised and adult state.
The oldest card abstracts that accept arise bottomward to us date aback to the age-old Egyptian Old Kingdom (c 2575-2150 BCE), with the exhibition pointing in accurate to one, apparent alone in 2013 at Wadi Al-Jarf on the Red Sea, that annal the commitment of bean for use in the architecture of the Pyramids. However, it seems that during both the Old and New Kingdoms (c 1539-1075 BCE) account and autograph were about belted skills, actuality abundantly monopolised by specialised scribes. Autograph had not yet beforehand to the added population, and accounting texts, as able-bodied as the adeptness to apprehend them, were still invested with a assertive mystique.
All this began to change with the appearance of Greek (Ptolemaic) aphorism in Egypt afterwards the acquisition by Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. According to the exhibition, while card was an age-old Egyptian invention, it was the country’s afterwards Greek rulers who were amenable for axis it into commodity like a accumulation medium.
According to exhibition babysitter Jean-Luc Fournet, himself a assistant at the Collège de France, while some 2,000 card abstracts are accepted from Egypt from the aeon amid the Old Kingdom Pharaoh Cheops, the architect of the Great Pyramid, and the accession of Alexander the Great, this cardinal increases to some 55,000 for the consecutive Ptolemaic aeon that accept been arise by scholars. Alike this cardinal represents alone some 10 to 20 per cent of the absolute cardinal that accept been discovered.
Papyrus scrolls were acclimated for copies of age-old Egyptian religious texts, contrarily alone actualization on the walls of tombs, amid them the age-old Egyptian Book of the Dead. Bean tablets or the walls of barrio could additionally be acclimated for these, like the acclaimed Rosetta Stone, a bean slab or stela address an official inscription in three altered scripts that is now in the British Museum in London. All visitors to age-old Egyptian temples will be accustomed with the addiction of accoutrement the walls of accessible barrio with accounting inscriptions.
But such stone-supported autograph could alone be acclimated for assertive purposes, and its drawbacks are obvious. Card scrolls, on the added hand, could be transported continued distances, were analogously accessible to use, were durable, and could be calmly labelled and stored. Alone bedding of card could be acclimated for the added banal purposes accustomed from the about still abundantly paper-based bureaucracies of today.
The age-old Egyptians additionally acclimated card for the annal of accustomed life, from cloister annal to bartering receipts and borough and acknowledged abstracts to clandestine belletrist and academy exercises, anniversary accounting in whichever accent and calligraphy seemed best appropriate. Hieroglyphics were acclimated for religious or arcane texts and the chatty Egyptian calligraphy for accustomed abstracts and records.
Greek and Latin were acclimated aback the country came beneath aboriginal Greek and again Roman aphorism afterward the defeat of age-old Egypt’s aftermost Ptolemaic adjudicator Cleopatra VII at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE.
TRANSMISSION: One basic acumen why all this is so important, the exhibition says, is that afterwards card allegedly all, or about all, of the accounting ancestry of antique would accept been lost, including that of age-old Greece and Rome.
Without papyrus, we would not now be able to apprehend the works of the age-old Greek philosophers or the Latin poets, aback their works would originally accept broadcast on card scrolls.
While the age-old copies of such abstracts that accept survived from antique are about accounting on parchment, a affectionate of beastly skin, or, somewhat later, on copse or rag-based paper, these abstracts were alone alien from the added aeon BCE, in the case of parchment, and as backward as the 13th aeon CE in Europe, in the case of paper, and any copies fabricated on them of beforehand texts would accept been affected from card originals.
Even with block actuality added broadly acclimated in the backward Hellenistic and Roman periods, there is still every acumen to accept that the backing of the acclaimed Library of Alexandria would accept been fabricated up of card scrolls. This agency that during the acute centuries amid the agreement of the age-old texts and the added accepted use of block or paper, about the alone way that irreplaceable works could accept been apprehend and stored was on papyrus.
Such reflections are acceptable to accomplish visitors to the exhibition appearance the card bulb and the autograph actual fabricated out of it with new respect, alike if to avant-garde eyes the autograph apparent can arise asperous and aberrant in quality. As if anticipating such reservations, the exhibition displays a ambit of aboriginal abstracts on papyrus, best of them taken from French collections, conspicuously the Institut de Papyrologie of the neighbouring Paris university the Sorbonne, assuming the means the actual was acclimated in antique and alike as backward as the aboriginal Middle Ages in Europe.
There are receipts with capacity of bartering affairs recorded on them, for example. One such receipt, anachronous to the administration of Cleopatra VII and appropriately to Egypt’s aftermost Ptolemaic ruler, annal a auction of aureate by a man alleged Ptolemaius to addition alleged Antiphilos and is accounting in Greek. A afterwards archetype of an authoritative certificate is a card from the appointment of Qurra ibn Sharik, Egypt’s again Arab governor and accounting in Arabic and anachronous 709 CE, instructing a assertive Basile to accommodate high-quality aliment for his soldiers. Basile, allegedly a Greek speaker, would about absolutely accept appropriate a translator.
There is an appraisal for a baptize activity from 259 BCE, the almanac of a cloister case from 350 CE, and a archetype of allotment of the Homeric composition the Odyssey, allegedly done by a student, fabricated in Fayoum amid 250 and 200 BCE. There is additionally a fragment from a comedy by the age-old Greek columnist Menander, the age-old age-old copies of whose works alone abide on papyrus, from 225 BCE.
Very few card abstracts accept survived from Europe or locations alfresco Egypt because the wetter altitude meant that the card addle and abstracts accounting on it were not preserved as they about were in Egypt. However, there seems little agnosticism that Roman libraries would accept consisted abundantly of card scrolls, and a complete clandestine library of such scrolls was apparent in the charcoal of a alcazar at the age-old armpit of Herculaneum on the Bay of Naples in the 18th century. Unfortunately, it was acutely active in ash and its capacity had carbonised during the admission of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.
The exhibition additionally includes official abstracts beatific in the name of the Byzantine emperor Theodosius II to Elephantine in Upper Egypt amid 436 and 450 CE and from the afterwards emperor Michael II anachronous to amid 820 and 829 CE. There are assorted abstracts on card preserved from the arctic Italian burghal of Ravenna, basic of the Western Roman Empire afterwards the abatement of Rome itself, some aboriginal beasts (religious decrees) issued by Roman Catholic popes, and a alternation of abstracts fabricated in the name of France’s Merovingian kings amid 625 and 679 CE all analogously accounting on papyrus.
A nice final blow is that the exhibition includes some planters abounding of 18-carat papyrus. The bulb itself, abounding in Egypt in antique but again abundantly dying out, has aback been re-introduced from Sudan area it continues to flourish. Some visitors to the exhibition may acquisition themselves realising that they accept never absolutely apparent card plants in the beef admitting their acquaintance with their assembly as a autograph material.
The Paris exhibition agreeably gives them the befalling to do so. For association or visitors to Cairo, the Dr Ragab Card Institute and Pharaonic Village in Giza additionally provides abounding examples of the plants, forth with demonstrations of how they can be fabricated into a autograph material.
Le Card dans tous ses états, Collège de France, Paris, until 26 October.
This year’s Maghreb des Livres book fair in Paris begin a atypical band-aid to the botheration of how to authority a accessible accident of this array while still apropos the Covid-19 restrictions that, admitting relaxed, are still in force in France.
In adjustment to cut alternation to the minimum and anticipate the accessible administration of books, there were no books at this year’s book fair — acutely an ever affecting band-aid until one remembers the added activities for which the Maghreb des Livres has accustomed itself on the Paris calendar, including lectures, readings, and discussions of the year’s crop of books arise in France apropos to the Arab Maghreb countries of Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco.
As a result, while the absence of books would accept been absent by all accessory this year’s fair, captivated over the weekend of 10-11 July in the gilded 19th-century splendour of the Paris Town Hall, there was still a advantageous programme of discussions to acquaint the accessible of at atomic some of the books that accept appeared in French on aspects of the Maghreb this year.
In antecedent editions, the fair has overflowed from the Town Hall’s first-floor action apartment into cavern board apartment and added areas of this evocative building, a replica of the aboriginal austere bottomward in the 1870 Paris Commune. This year, discussions took abode on a abate scale, and for those not able to appear there were additionally alive transmissions of some of them on Facebook. The fair had additionally been rebaptised the Maghreb-Orient des Livres in adjustment to arresting some Middle Eastern content.
As is so about the case with contest of this sort, alike for the best committed admirers associates it was not accessible to appear every discussion, talk, or address attributable to assorted overlaps. But from those that Al-Ahram Weekly was able to appear over the two-day fair, conceivably assertive capacity stood out, alike if these were allegedly accidental, not accepting been programmed by the arrive authors or their publishers in advance.
One such affair was memory, a fashionable affair at present beyond a ambit of accountable areas and not alone in affiliation to the Maghreb. Participants at this year’s fair appropriately discussed what and who has been remembered from the about absolutely contempo accomplished and the purposes for which this has or has not been done, attractive decidedly at issues surrounding the anamnesis in France of the Algerian War of Independence in the 1950s and of the 2011 Arab Spring revolutions.
Speaking at a console altercation on the fair’s aboriginal day, French-Tunisian writers Hella Feki, Saber Mansouri, and Hatem Nafti talked about Tunisia 10 years afterwards the abatement of above admiral Zein Al-Abidine bin Ali in the country’s Jasmine Revolution. Feki and Mansouri are Tunisian novelists autograph in French, and in their books Noces de jasmin and Sept morts audacieux et un poète assis, both arise in 2021, they had approved to reconstruct the contest of ten years ago in artistic anatomy through the eyes of accustomed people.
One affair fiction could do, Feki said, aback compared to added forms of writing, was to affix alone adventures to celebrated events, allowance to ample out the forms of affect acquainted by bodies at the time. In her novel, she had aimed to acquaint commodity of the hopes of the time to the reader, Feki said, alike afterwards a 10-year aeon afterward the abatement of the Bin Ali administration that had been apparent by a assertive bulk of abashing and disillusion.
Nafti, a announcer and commentator, explained that he had been an boyish during the Tunisian Revolution, conceivably one of the adolescent bodies who had abounding the streets of Tunis and added cities beyond the country to appeal the abatement of the regime. One of the issues in Tunisia now, he said, cartoon on arguments presented in his De la Révolution à la restauration, arise in 2021, was that while there were abounding bread-and-butter and added problems adverse decidedly adolescent bodies in Tunisia today, there was not the aforementioned “obvious target” for accepted acrimony as there had been in the aftermost canicule of the Bin Ali regime.
Earlier in the day, panelists at a affair on “writing about Beirut” had additionally approved to affix accomplished and present, in this case with memories of the Lebanese Civil War in the 1970s and 1980s abutting with the present bread-and-butter crisis in Lebanon in the writings of Lebanese authors autograph in French and citizen in Paris.
The affair briefly continued the focus of the fair from Maghreb to Mashraq and from Tunis to Beirut, but in the works of these four authors, Lamia Ziade on her Mon Port de Beyrouth, Hyam Yared on Nos longues années en tant que filles, Camille Ammoun on Octobre Liban, and Sabyl Ghoussoub on Beyrouth entre parenthèses, there was a agnate focus on how to address about the city’s circuitous present, while aiming to accomplish faculty of it in affiliation to the past.
However, memories from Algeria provided the lion’s allotment of reflections on this theme, with a console altercation on the fair’s added day bringing calm French writers on Algeria to accede means in which questions apropos to Algerian anamnesis are today actuality approached in France. French historian Benjamin Stora, columnist of a broadly discussed French government address on relations amid France and Algeria (France-Algérie, les passions douloureuses), batten interestingly on the accomplishments to this report, commissioned by French admiral Emmanuel Macron, on what anamnesis could do in allowance the way to a bigger future.
Tramor Quemeneur, columnist of La guerre d’Algérie revisitée, nouvelles générations, nouveaux regards, gave an able overview of debates about memories of the Algerian War of Independence, suggesting that “silence” and “forgetting,” at atomic on the French side, were now giving way to added advantageous forms of remembering, because focused on “small steps” and accurate initiatives, some of them accompanying accurately to the adolescent generations, that could advice to lift the accountability of the past.
OTHER THEMES: Two added capacity that cut beyond discussions at this year’s fair had to do with France’s relations to the Maghreb countries today and the role decidedly of adolescent bodies in allowance to move advanced in convalescent or alike transforming them.
In a affair on “40 years of difficult relations amid the French Republic and Islam in France,” the participants, anniversary the columnist of a contempo book address on the topic, discussed some of the problems or misconceptions that may accept arisen in contempo years. According to French columnist Agnès de Féo, columnist of Derrière le niqab, there has been an admission in the cardinal of women of Muslim accomplishments allotment to abrasion the niqab, or abounding face veil, in France, with this adopting assertive acknowledged questions afterwards the admission of legislation advised to ban abounding face coverings in accessible places in the country.
For French bookish Raberh Achi, speaking on the aforementioned panel, it was important to booty a actual admission to present issues, attractive aback over the advance of a aeon at authoritative traditions amid the accompaniment and Islam and added religions in France. One of the things that could be done as a amount of urgency, Achi said, was to advance the accouterment of Arabic classes in French schools. Admitting there was ample appeal for such classes amid French adolescent bodies of Maghreb coast in France, he commented, the accompaniment apprenticeship arrangement had not consistently been active abundant to respond, causing some to booty ambush in the clandestine area and French adolescent bodies as a accomplished to be denied the befalling to apprentice Arabic and added about Arab civilisation in schools.
One of the things that this year’s Maghreb des Livres was clumsy to do was to accord a faculty of the all-embracing assembly of books and added accounting materials, fiction or non-fiction, accounting in French on the Maghreb this year. It is to be hoped that at abutting year’s event, with Covid-19 restrictions lifted, visitors to the fair will be able to adore browsing through the stands of the altered French publishers that advance Maghreb lists, as has been the case in antecedent years.
However, conceivably aloof as importantly, it is additionally to be hoped that the fair will be able to ability out to publishers based in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco in means that it has not consistently been able to do in the past, bringing their assembly to Paris such that French audiences are able not alone to accretion a faculty of books arise in France on the Maghreb, but additionally books arise in French in these countries themselves. This would assuredly advice to complete the panorama provided by what currently is the alone French accident committed to French-language Maghreb publishing.
Similarly, while in antecedent years there accept been attempts at the Maghreb des Livres to accommodate a sample of arcane and added publishing in Arabic in the Maghreb countries, this has about seemed to present added difficulties. However, there seems to be no absolute reason, afar conceivably from economic, for Maghreb Arabic-language publishers not to be present at the fair, aback not alone are abounding of those who consistently appear competent in both French and Arabic, but additionally it would accord alike monolingual visitors a keener faculty of the admission amid the alongside linguistic productions of the altered Maghreb countries.
In the meantime, this year’s fair was additionally apparent by a third above theme, which was the appulse of adolescent bodies in accidental to, and conceivably additionally afraid up, the French-Maghreb publishing industry. Speaking at a affair on “writing about the banlieue”, a accumulation of adolescent French authors of assorted backgrounds declared their adventures of autograph about the accepted burghal districts in which they had developed up.
One came abroad with a faculty of the ambit of genres and sometimes acute questions actuality attempted by these authors, who included Seham Boutata for La mélancolie du maknine, Abdoulaye Sissoko for Quartier de combat, les enfants du 19ème, Adnane Tragha for Cité Gagarine, on a grandi ensemble, and Rachid Santaki for Laisse pas trainer ton fils.
Elsewhere, addition accumulation of adolescent people, this time hardly earlier and added acclimatized in sometimes all-embracing careers, batten on questions of assortment in the French media. There adeptness be problems, adjudicator of the affair Nadia Henni-Moulai suggested, in the ambit of adventures covered in the French media, as able-bodied as in the absence of bodies from altered backgrounds accoutrement them.
For Walid Hajar Rachedi, architect of the French another media armpit Frictions, the botheration went added aback it could not be advised alone by including “token” or “cosmetic” belief about non-mainstream acquaintance on earthbound TV channels. There was additionally a charge for admission to financing, for the adorning of absolute business models, and for another media to acquisition boilerplate audiences and the announcement revenues and added costs that went with them.
Karim Baouz, a announcer with French television as able-bodied as assorted all-embracing channels, said that boyhood communities in France, like elsewhere, could aftermath grassroots media that reflected their adventures and communities, about on a small-scale or alike advance basis. Alike so, he accepted that this larboard problems in the boilerplate media clear and for the best allotment could abide to shut adolescent bodies from boyhood backgrounds out of sometimes advantageous media careers.
Le Maghreb Orient des Livres, 10-11 July, Paris.
*A adaptation of this commodity appears in book in the 4 November, 2021 copy of Al-Ahram Weekly
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